Ergonomics aims at preventing injuries by controlling

the risk factors such as force, repetition, posture and

vibration that can cause injuries to develop. Some

fundamental ergonomic principals that should be followed

in our workplaces are:

1. Use proper tools

Tools should be appropriate for the specific tasks being

performed. Your tools should allow you to keep your

hands and wrists straight – the position they would be in

if they were hanging relaxed at your side. Bend the tool –

not the wrist!

The tool should fit comfortably into your hand. If the

grip size is too large or too small it will be uncomfortable

and will increase the risk of injury. Tools should not have

sharp edges, create contact stresses in your hand, or

vibrate.

2. Keep repetitive motions to a minimum

Our workstations or tasks can often be redesigned to

reduce the number of repetitive motions that must be

performed. Using a power-driven screwdriver or tools

with a ratchet device can reduce the number of twisting

motions with the arm. Some tasks can be automated or

redesigned to eliminate repetitive movements and

musculoskeletal injuries.

3. Avoid awkward postures

Your job should not require you to work with your hands

above shoulder height on a regular basis. Arms should be

kept low and close to your body. Bending and twisting of

your wrists, back and neck should also be avoided.

4. Use safe lifting procedures

Avoid lifting objects that are too heavy. Use more than

one person or a mechanical device to reduce the load.

Your workstation should not require you to lift objects

above your head or twist your back while lifting. Keep the

load close to your body and ensure that you have a good

grip. Heavy and frequently lifted objects should be stored

between knee and shoulder height – not on the ground

or above your head.

5. Get proper rest

You need to rest your body and mind in order to prevent

injuries. Give your muscles a rest during your coffee

breaks, lunches and weekends by doing something

different from what you do in your job. For example, if

you stand all day while performing your job you should

sit down to rest your legs and feet during your breaks. If

you sit down when working you should stand up and

walk around during your breaks to give your back a rest

and to increase circulation in your legs.

Extract from: Ergonomic Handbook for the Clothing Industry

Published by the Union of Needletrades, Industrial and Textile Employees, the Institute for Work &
Health, and the Occupational Health Clinics for Ontario Workers, Inc. (2001)

What is ergonomics?

Ergonomics can be defined simply as the study of work. More specifically, ergonomics is the science of designing the job to fit the worker, rather than physically forcing the worker’s body to fit the job. Adapting tasks, work stations, tools, and equipment to fit the worker can help reduce physical stress on a worker’s body and eliminate many potentially serious, disabling workrelated musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs). Ergonomics draws on a number of
scientific disciplines, including physiology, biomechanics, psychology, anthropometry, industrial hygiene, and kinesiology.

Why is ergonomics important?

Industries increasingly require higher production rates and advances in technology to remain competitive and stay in business. As a result, jobs today can involve:

· Frequent lifting, carrying, and pushing or pulling loads without help from other workers or devices;

· Increasing specialization that requires the worker to perform only one function or movement for a long period of time or day after day;

· Working more than 8 hours a day;

· Working at a quicker pace of work, such as faster assembly line speeds; and

· Having tighter grips when using tools.

These factors—especially if coupled with poor machine design, tool, and workplace design or the use of improper tools—create physical stress on workers’ bodies, which can lead to injury. A dramatic increase in MSDs began in the 1970s when these disorders increasingly appeared on companies’ injury and illness logs. OSHA cited companies for hazardous workplace conditions that caused problems such as tendinitis, carpal tunnel syndrome, and back injuries. The Bureau of Labor Statistics, an agency

of the U.S. Department of Labor, recognizes MSDs as a serious workplace health hazard. These injuries now account for more than onethird of all lost—workday case.

If work tasks and equipment do not include ergonomic principles in their design, workers may have exposure to undue physical stress, strain, and overexertion, including vibration, awkward postures, forceful exertions, repetitive motion, and heavy lifting. Recognizing ergonomic risk factors in the workplace is an essential first step in correcting hazards and improving worker protection. Ergonomists, industrial engineers, occupational safety and health professionals, and other trained individuals believe that reducing physical stress in the workplace could eliminate up to half of the serious injuries each year. Employers can learn to anticipate what might go wrong and alter tools and the work environment to make tasks safer for theirworkers.

1. Alberta Human Resources and Employment
Workplace Health and Safety Publications:
http://www3.gov.ab.ca/hre/whs/publications/bulletins.asp

Included in this list are bulletins and fact sheets about back care/lifting, ergonomics, physical hazards, and safe working methods.
2. Association of Canadian Ergonomists (ACE)
Main Page: http://www.ace.ergonomist.ca/
ACE is an association of persons who have human factors/ergonomics interests
(including research workers, practitioners, clients and the general public).
Information related to certification, events, consultant directory, and membership.

3. CCOHS
Ergonomics: OSH Answers
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/ergonomics/
In this section of OSH Answers, a general description of ergonomics is provided.
Links to other ergonomics or human factors-related topics (e.g., anti-fatigue
mats, back injury prevention, manual materials handling, office ergonomics, etc.)
are also accessible from this page.

4. Cornell University
CUErgo: Cornell University Ergo Web
http://ergo.human.cornell.edu/
“CUErgo presents information from ergonomics research studies and class work
by students and faculty in the Cornell Human Factors and Ergonomics Research
Group.”

5. CSAO
Products: Back Care (various)
http://www.csao.org/t.tools/t5.products/Home.cfm
From the “Products” section, you can use the drop down menu to view items that
address the issue of back care, including guides on manual materials handling,
safe working methods, and back care videos.
Information Services: Ergonomics
http://www.csao.org/t.tools/t10.informationservices/index.cfm
“[The] CSAO works with labour-management committees and other stakeholders
to research construction-related health and safety issues.” There are a few
categories that are documented on the site, including ergonomics (e.g., back
care, back pain in construction, health risks for heavy equipment operators,
musculoskeletal disorders, etc.).

6. Ergoweb
http://www.ergoweb.com/
“Ergoweb provides ergonomic solutions to companies and individuals looking to
increase productivity and quality while decreasing worker overuse injuries.
Ergonomics increases human performance by fitting products, tasks and
environments to people.”
7. IAPA
o Manual Materials Handling
http://www.iapa.ca/pdf/manmat.pdf
This information sheet discusses the various elements of manual materials
handling, including legislation, hazards, control measures, general precautions,
maintenance, and training.

8. IRSST (Institut de recherche Robert-Sauvé en santé et sécurité du travail)
o Publications: Musculoskeletal Disorders
http://www.irsst.qc.ca/en/_publicationirssts_par_champ_10.html
Most of these reports are issued in French, and are sorted by year. Topics
include general ergonomic principles, carpal tunnel syndrome, manual handling,
back pain, and industry-specific concerns (e.g., vehicle cab design).
9. IWH
o Fact Sheets:
§ Work-related musculoskeletal disorders:
http://www.iwh.on.ca/media/wmsd.php
§ Low back pain:
§ http://www.iwh.on.ca/media/lowbackpain.php
o Working Papers:
http://www.iwh.on.ca/products/wp.php
o Occasional papers:
http://www.iwh.on.ca/products/occ_pap.php
o Other publications
http://www.iwh.on.ca/products/other_pap.php
o Publications:
http://www.iwh.on.ca/products/cur_news.php
o Tool Kit: http://www.iwh.on.ca/products/toolkit.php
§ Participative Ergonomic Blueprint:
http://www.iwh.on.ca/products/blueprint.php
§ The DASH: http://www.iwh.on.ca/products/dash.php
§ Work-Ready: Return-to-work approaches for people with softtissue
injuries http://www.iwh.on.ca/products/wrk_rdy.php
§ The Back Guide: http://www.iwh.on.ca/products/bck_gde.php
Working papers include those reports or studies that are not yet peer-reviewed in
a published journal; research not intended for publication may be reported in the
form of an occasional paper. The tool kit includes some practical tools “which
may be used in a variety of settings, from clinical practice to the workplace.”

10. National Occupational Health and Safety Commission (Australia)
o Ergonomics for the Control of Sprains and Strains in Mining
http://www.nohsc.gov.au/PDF/Standards/ErgonomicsSprainsStrainsMinin
g.pdf
“This handbook is for use by occupational health and safety personnel and
others who have responsibility for the prevention of accidents and injuries in
mining. The aim is to assist these users in the identification and management of
risks associated with manual handling and rough rides in mines.”
11. National Safety Council
o Ergonomics
http://www.nsc.org/issues/ergotop.htm
This page contains archived articles, in addition to links and other resources
pertaining to ergonomics.
12. NIOSH
o Ergonomics and Musculoskeletal Disorders
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/ergonomics/
This section of the NIOSH site provides links to ergonomics programs, research,
risk factors, and specific issues related to ergonomic/human factors (e.g., back
belts, vibration, VDTs, etc.).
o Ergonomics in Mining
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/topics/ergonomics/
This topic page focuses on ergonomics issues in the mining industry,
including design recommendations for mining machinery and related safety
topics.

13. Nova Scotia Environment and Labour
o About Ergonomics:
http://www.gov.ns.ca/enla/ohs/ergonom/index.htm
o Ergonomics Glossary:
http://www.gov.ns.ca/enla/ohs/ergonom/ergoglos.htm
o Publications: Ergonomics
http://www.gov.ns.ca/enla/ohs/ergonom/ergopubs.htm
“This site provides ergonomics information and resources to workplaces across
[Nova Scotia].”

14. OHCOW (Occupational Health Clinics for Ontario Workers)
o General Handouts: http://www.ohcow.on.ca/resources/handouts.html
Among these include: ergonomics and driving, hand-arm vibration syndrome,
physical demands analysis, whole-body vibration, work-related musculoskeletal
disorders, and working on your feet. Literature is intended for a general
audience.
o Snook Tables: http://www.ohcow.on.ca/resources/info_sheets.html
The snook tables provided from this page include those referring to the maximum
weight of lift, forces of push, forces of pull, and weight of carry.
o Workbooks: http://www.ohcow.on.ca/resources/workbooks.html
There are currently four workbooks available from this page, including a Physical
Demands Workbook , and Office Ergonomics Handbook .
o NIOSH Lifting Equation Software:
http://www.ohcow.on.ca/resources/software_prog.html

15. OSHA
o Ergonomics: Strategy for Success
http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/ergonomics/index.html
Guidelines, regulations, outreach services, job analysis tools, examples of
contributing conditions, and solutions pertaining to ergonomics are offered
through this portion of the OSHA.

16. Workers’ Compensation Board of Alberta
o Remembering the Basics Booklet
http://www.wcb.ab.ca/workingsafely/ergobook.asp
This booklet is “designed to alert you to the potential for an RSI and assist you in
preventing one from occurring.”

17. Workers’ Compensation Board of BC
o Ergonomics: http://ergonomics.healthandsafetycentre.org/s/Home.asp
Guides for identifying and preventing MSIs, as well as back pain, are available.

18. WSIB of Ontario
o Making Ergonomics Work:
http://www.wsib.on.ca/wsib/wsibsite.nsf/LookupFiles/DownloadableFileEr
gonomics/$File/ergonomics.pdf
This 6-page brochure outlines the role of the ergonomist, and what he/she can
do to minimize risk in the workplace. A series of frequently-asked questions
(FAQs) are provided at the end of the end of the document.
o Return to Work Bibliography:
http://www.wsib.on.ca/wsib/wsibsite.nsf/Public/RTWBibliography
This resource provides useful information about return-to work. The bibliogr

TYPES OF TECHNOLOGIES USED IN THE GARMENT INDUSTRY BY Leigh Hayden

Pre-production

CAD (computer-assisted design) software package for design, pattern-making, and marker-making. These software packages can be used in a few different ways. A base pattern can be made out of cardboard (“the old fashioned way”) and then placed on a digitizing table and its coordinates traced out to obtain a digital image of each pattern piece. Alternatively, instead of making the base pattern by hand, a new pattern can be made by electronically manipulating an already digitized pattern. In this way, developing new but not radically different styles and patterns can be done with relative ease. Sizing rules tell the computer how the dimensions of people grow. These sizing rules are not standard; they vary somewhat between companies and significantly between countries. With these rules, the computer can “grade” the pattern and enlarge or shrink the base pattern to obtain the pattern pieces for other sizes. Grading was traditionally done by hand and is a slow and difficult process. Once a pattern has been graded into all of the required sizes for a particular production run, a marker is developed with the aid of the computer to maximize fabric utilization. A marker is a map of how the different pattern pieces are laid out on the fabric. According to some sources, fabric is usually about 30% of the cost of the garment, so fabric waste minimization is essential to keep costs down. Marker development can be done manually, although it can take several hours and fabric utilization is usually not as efficient as it is when the computer is used. When the marker is completed it is usually printed out on a larger plotter and then delivered to the cutting floor. Most facilities we visited used Gerber technology for design, pattern making and grading, and marker making. The benefits of CAD technology are efficiency and accuracy. With CAD technology, businesses can develop products faster. In addition, since grading and marking is automated, the patterns are more accurate and the percentage of material usage is higher. CAD technology was first used in the garment industry in the 1980s.9 It has improved significantly in terms of functionality and user friendliness in the last five to ten years.

Another development in pre-production technology is 3-D body scanning. There are several different models of the 3-D body scanner, but they all do essentially the same thing—they automate measuring body dimensions. Automating this process does two things—it increases the accuracy of measurement (it is difficult to obtain accurate body measurements manually because of human variation and error),11 and it unobtrusively and quickly measures a vast number of body dimensions. Body scanning equipment, referred to as “booths”, ranges in price from USD

$25,000-$225,000. Some believe that in the near future it will be common for people to go to body scanning boutiques to have their measurements taken, receive an electronic copy of their measurements, and then download this information to a virtual store to purchase custom-made clothing online. Body scanning technology is the perfect complement for electronic clothing boutiques. An individual can use his or her data to either order custom-made clothes online or determine whether a particular ready-made style fits their own body properly. It is estimated that 38%-40% of all clothing purchased online is returned. Garment industry analysts project that body scanning technology will significantly decrease the return rate and increase profits of online stores.

Production

Spreading/Cutting

The first stage of production is cutting. Fabric is laid out on spreader tables in layers of 1 to 100, depending on the type of fabric and the size of the production run. A paper marker is placed on top of the fabric. Each pattern piece on the marker is identified with a code indicating the style of garment, size, colour, and type of piece. Smaller facilities with short production runs or custom-made orders do pattern cutting either with scissors or an electric hand-held fabric cutter. Some large volume facilities have invested in automated spreaders and cutters. At the plant, automated spreaders have been installed. Where ten people used to be employed to spread and cut fabric, in this plant it only requires two people, one to operate each machine. In the spreading area, fabric isbspread out into several layers on one end of a very long table. At the plant, air is blown up from the bottom of the spreader table so the fabric can be slid down the table to the cutting area once the fabric spreading is complete. In the cutting area, the table is equipped with a vacuum to keep the many layers of fabric in place. Although a paper marker is laid over the fabric, the electronic cutter does not follow the lines of the marker. The marker is used for labelling the pattern pieces. The marker is downloaded into the automated cutter. The operator starts the cutter and it quickly and accurately cuts the fabric. Once the cutting step is complete (whether the cutting is done by hand or with an automated cutter) the fabric pieces are bundled, labelled and sent to the sewing area.

United Production System (UPS)

A UPS is an overhead track where garment pieces are moved from one sewing step to another, in sequence, until the garment is complete. It was developed in the 1970s to help streamline the production process. It can save time and can improve efficiency by bringing the work to the sewing machine operator (SMO). The plant that we visited with the UPS system makes only one type of garment. The UPS system is ideal for this type of production because the production steps do not change. For facilities that make a variety of different garments in a variety of different styles. UPS set-up must be flexible because the order and number of sewing steps changes with each type of garment.

Modular Sewing

In modular sewing, a team of usually four SMOs (sewing machine operators) work together to complete a garment from start to finish. Each team member may be responsible for two or three steps in the construction. This type of work usually requires highly skilled and experienced sewing machine operators. They must be trained on a variety of machines and understand a multitude of different operations. a modular team system has been implemented to reduce in-progress inventory and speed up order filling so that rush orders can be shipped to the customer within 48 hours. This system also allows the firm to monitor the performance of each team and base bonuses on the number of garments produced above quota for each team. Bonuses are team-based rather than based on individual performance. If a team member is not performing to standard, the rest of the team pressures that person to increase their output.Thus, peer pressure as well as bonus incentives encourage SMOs to work harder and faster.

Stand-up Sewing Machines

There is some debate as to whether stand-up sewing machines are desirable.

The workers initially rejected the stand-up machines and many walked out. Given time, we were told, the sewing machine operators who remained on began to prefer them to the sit-down machines, and some SMOs who quit heard that it was a positive change and asked for their jobs back. Stand-up machines are in theory less fatiguing because they offer more mobility. While operating a stand-up machine, the operator stands on a micro-sensor pad to reduce fatigue and controls the machine using light-touch foot pedals. We were told that sitting down and bending over a machine all day is much more fatiguing and ergonomically taxing than standing at a machine. Thus, it is said that workers have accepted stand-up machines because they find the work less fatiguing and they also achieve higher efficiency, which means more bonuses and higher pay. Others facilities have not embraced the stand-up machines.

Other Sewing Machine Technology

Other sewing machine technology, such as thread cutters and machines that automatically place the sewing needle in the down position once the machine is stopped, have increased efficiency and ease of sewing.

Automated embroidery machines have replaced hand embroidery. An electronic copy of the desired logo or inscription is read by the machine and automatically stitched into the fabric. This type of work used to take hours of skilled labour, but now an operator simply places the fabric under the needle, instructs the machine to read the electronic file, and presses a button. Other production technology has focused on “small parts preparation”, work that is standard and simple. Other “small parts preparation” technology, such as automatic back pocket and label sewing, reduce the time and skill level needed for these steps.

For large-scale manufacturing, the lower labour costs in developing countries such as China and Mexico make a considerable impact on the cost of each garment piece, enough to easily make up for increased shipping costs and lead times.

Communication Technology

Large garment manufacturing firms in rely on sophisticated communication technology software systems. Communication technology is critical for larger multinational corporations in a variety ways. First, plants facility operate on an automatic ordering system. When the inventory levels of key garments for their customers (at least those who have agreed to use the automatic reorder

system) drop below a certain point, an order is automatically placed at the plant. Once the order comes in, it can be shipped within 48 hours (if the items are in their standard colours—otherwise the order will be shipped in over 48 hours). This ensures that stores have sufficient inventory, but stores do not have to overstock because thereorder time is so short.

The second type of communication technology involves relaying design information from design shops to manufacturing facilities in developing countries. Once a new garment has been designed, and the pattern developed and graded, the information must be sent overseas and the instructions for the garment construction must be communicated. Good communication is key, due to the cost of miscommunication and the significant barriers to communication, such as

language and geography. Communication technology to relay and discuss the information has been developed by CAD software companies, such as Gerber and Lectra, as part of their full suite. However, when one sight has a Gerber system, and the other has a Lectra system, there can be compatibility issues. Finally, another important feature of a software package such as Gerber or Lectra is specification communication. Companies that have their products manufactured in a number of different locations around the world must maintain standards and quality. Using industry-particular software, companies can communicate fabrication specifications to all of their customers to ensure their product needs are understood and met.

This article Sortir from A report for the Manitoba Research Allianceon Community Economic Development in the New Economy 2005