the risk factors such as force, repetition, posture and

vibration that can cause injuries to develop. Some

fundamental ergonomic principals that should be followed

in our workplaces are:

1. Use proper tools

Tools should be appropriate for the specific tasks being

performed. Your tools should allow you to keep your

hands and wrists straight – the position they would be in

if they were hanging relaxed at your side. Bend the tool –

not the wrist!

The tool should fit comfortably into your hand. If the

grip size is too large or too small it will be uncomfortable

and will increase the risk of injury. Tools should not have

sharp edges, create contact stresses in your hand, or

vibrate.

2. Keep repetitive motions to a minimum

Our workstations or tasks can often be redesigned to

reduce the number of repetitive motions that must be

performed. Using a power-driven screwdriver or tools

with a ratchet device can reduce the number of twisting

motions with the arm. Some tasks can be automated or

redesigned to eliminate repetitive movements and

musculoskeletal injuries.

3. Avoid awkward postures

Your job should not require you to work with your hands

above shoulder height on a regular basis. Arms should be

kept low and close to your body. Bending and twisting of

your wrists, back and neck should also be avoided.

4. Use safe lifting procedures

Avoid lifting objects that are too heavy. Use more than

one person or a mechanical device to reduce the load.

Your workstation should not require you to lift objects

above your head or twist your back while lifting. Keep the

load close to your body and ensure that you have a good

grip. Heavy and frequently lifted objects should be stored

between knee and shoulder height – not on the ground

or above your head.

5. Get proper rest

You need to rest your body and mind in order to prevent

injuries. Give your muscles a rest during your coffee

breaks, lunches and weekends by doing something

different from what you do in your job. For example, if

you stand all day while performing your job you should

sit down to rest your legs and feet during your breaks. If

you sit down when working you should stand up and

walk around during your breaks to give your back a rest

and to increase circulation in your legs.

Extract from: Ergonomic Handbook for the Clothing Industry

Published by the Union of Needletrades, Industrial and Textile Employees, the Institute for Work &
Health, and the Occupational Health Clinics for Ontario Workers, Inc. (2001)

Ergonomics can be defined simply as the study of work. More specifically, ergonomics is the science of designing the job to fit the worker, rather than physically forcing the worker’s body to fit the job. Adapting tasks, work stations, tools, and equipment to fit the worker can help reduce physical stress on a worker’s body and eliminate many potentially serious, disabling workrelated musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs). Ergonomics draws on a number of
scientific disciplines, including physiology, biomechanics, psychology, anthropometry, industrial hygiene, and kinesiology.

Why is ergonomics important?

Industries increasingly require higher production rates and advances in technology to remain competitive and stay in business. As a result, jobs today can involve:

· Frequent lifting, carrying, and pushing or pulling loads without help from other workers or devices;

· Increasing specialization that requires the worker to perform only one function or movement for a long period of time or day after day;

· Working more than 8 hours a day;

· Working at a quicker pace of work, such as faster assembly line speeds; and

· Having tighter grips when using tools.

These factors—especially if coupled with poor machine design, tool, and workplace design or the use of improper tools—create physical stress on workers’ bodies, which can lead to injury. A dramatic increase in MSDs began in the 1970s when these disorders increasingly appeared on companies’ injury and illness logs. OSHA cited companies for hazardous workplace conditions that caused problems such as tendinitis, carpal tunnel syndrome, and back injuries. The Bureau of Labor Statistics, an agency

of the U.S. Department of Labor, recognizes MSDs as a serious workplace health hazard. These injuries now account for more than onethird of all lost—workday case.

If work tasks and equipment do not include ergonomic principles in their design, workers may have exposure to undue physical stress, strain, and overexertion, including vibration, awkward postures, forceful exertions, repetitive motion, and heavy lifting. Recognizing ergonomic risk factors in the workplace is an essential first step in correcting hazards and improving worker protection. Ergonomists, industrial engineers, occupational safety and health professionals, and other trained individuals believe that reducing physical stress in the workplace could eliminate up to half of the serious injuries each year. Employers can learn to anticipate what might go wrong and alter tools and the work environment to make tasks safer for theirworkers.

Included in this list are bulletins and fact sheets about back care/lifting, ergonomics, physical hazards, and safe working methods.
2. Association of Canadian Ergonomists (ACE)
Main Page: http://www.ace.ergonomist.ca/
ACE is an association of persons who have human factors/ergonomics interests
(including research workers, practitioners, clients and the general public).
Information related to certification, events, consultant directory, and membership.

3. CCOHS
Ergonomics: OSH Answers
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/ergonomics/
In this section of OSH Answers, a general description of ergonomics is provided.
Links to other ergonomics or human factors-related topics (e.g., anti-fatigue
mats, back injury prevention, manual materials handling, office ergonomics, etc.)
are also accessible from this page.

4. Cornell University
CUErgo: Cornell University Ergo Web
http://ergo.human.cornell.edu/
“CUErgo presents information from ergonomics research studies and class work
by students and faculty in the Cornell Human Factors and Ergonomics Research
Group.”

5. CSAO
Products: Back Care (various)
http://www.csao.org/t.tools/t5.products/Home.cfm
From the “Products” section, you can use the drop down menu to view items that
address the issue of back care, including guides on manual materials handling,
safe working methods, and back care videos.
Information Services: Ergonomics
http://www.csao.org/t.tools/t10.informationservices/index.cfm
“[The] CSAO works with labour-management committees and other stakeholders
to research construction-related health and safety issues.” There are a few
categories that are documented on the site, including ergonomics (e.g., back
care, back pain in construction, health risks for heavy equipment operators,
musculoskeletal disorders, etc.).

6. Ergoweb
http://www.ergoweb.com/
“Ergoweb provides ergonomic solutions to companies and individuals looking to
increase productivity and quality while decreasing worker overuse injuries.
Ergonomics increases human performance by fitting products, tasks and
environments to people.”
7. IAPA
o Manual Materials Handling
http://www.iapa.ca/pdf/manmat.pdf
This information sheet discusses the various elements of manual materials
handling, including legislation, hazards, control measures, general precautions,
maintenance, and training.

8. IRSST (Institut de recherche Robert-Sauvé en santé et sécurité du travail)
o Publications: Musculoskeletal Disorders
http://www.irsst.qc.ca/en/_publicationirssts_par_champ_10.html
Most of these reports are issued in French, and are sorted by year. Topics
include general ergonomic principles, carpal tunnel syndrome, manual handling,
back pain, and industry-specific concerns (e.g., vehicle cab design).
9. IWH
o Fact Sheets:
§ Work-related musculoskeletal disorders:
http://www.iwh.on.ca/media/wmsd.php
§ Low back pain:
§ http://www.iwh.on.ca/media/lowbackpain.php
o Working Papers:
http://www.iwh.on.ca/products/wp.php
o Occasional papers:
http://www.iwh.on.ca/products/occ_pap.php
o Other publications
http://www.iwh.on.ca/products/other_pap.php
o Publications:
http://www.iwh.on.ca/products/cur_news.php
o Tool Kit: http://www.iwh.on.ca/products/toolkit.php
§ Participative Ergonomic Blueprint:
http://www.iwh.on.ca/products/blueprint.php
§ The DASH: http://www.iwh.on.ca/products/dash.php
§ Work-Ready: Return-to-work approaches for people with softtissue
injuries http://www.iwh.on.ca/products/wrk_rdy.php
§ The Back Guide: http://www.iwh.on.ca/products/bck_gde.php
Working papers include those reports or studies that are not yet peer-reviewed in
a published journal; research not intended for publication may be reported in the
form of an occasional paper. The tool kit includes some practical tools “which
may be used in a variety of settings, from clinical practice to the workplace.”

10. National Occupational Health and Safety Commission (Australia)
o Ergonomics for the Control of Sprains and Strains in Mining
http://www.nohsc.gov.au/PDF/Standards/ErgonomicsSprainsStrainsMinin
g.pdf
“This handbook is for use by occupational health and safety personnel and
others who have responsibility for the prevention of accidents and injuries in
mining. The aim is to assist these users in the identification and management of
risks associated with manual handling and rough rides in mines.”
11. National Safety Council
o Ergonomics
http://www.nsc.org/issues/ergotop.htm
This page contains archived articles, in addition to links and other resources
pertaining to ergonomics.
12. NIOSH
o Ergonomics and Musculoskeletal Disorders
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/ergonomics/
This section of the NIOSH site provides links to ergonomics programs, research,
risk factors, and specific issues related to ergonomic/human factors (e.g., back
belts, vibration, VDTs, etc.).
o Ergonomics in Mining
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/topics/ergonomics/
This topic page focuses on ergonomics issues in the mining industry,
including design recommendations for mining machinery and related safety
topics.

13. Nova Scotia Environment and Labour
o About Ergonomics:
http://www.gov.ns.ca/enla/ohs/ergonom/index.htm
o Ergonomics Glossary:
http://www.gov.ns.ca/enla/ohs/ergonom/ergoglos.htm
o Publications: Ergonomics
http://www.gov.ns.ca/enla/ohs/ergonom/ergopubs.htm
“This site provides ergonomics information and resources to workplaces across
[Nova Scotia].”

14. OHCOW (Occupational Health Clinics for Ontario Workers)
o General Handouts: http://www.ohcow.on.ca/resources/handouts.html
Among these include: ergonomics and driving, hand-arm vibration syndrome,
physical demands analysis, whole-body vibration, work-related musculoskeletal
disorders, and working on your feet. Literature is intended for a general
audience.
o Snook Tables: http://www.ohcow.on.ca/resources/info_sheets.html
The snook tables provided from this page include those referring to the maximum
weight of lift, forces of push, forces of pull, and weight of carry.
o Workbooks: http://www.ohcow.on.ca/resources/workbooks.html
There are currently four workbooks available from this page, including a Physical
Demands Workbook , and Office Ergonomics Handbook .
o NIOSH Lifting Equation Software:
http://www.ohcow.on.ca/resources/software_prog.html

15. OSHA
o Ergonomics: Strategy for Success
http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/ergonomics/index.html
Guidelines, regulations, outreach services, job analysis tools, examples of
contributing conditions, and solutions pertaining to ergonomics are offered
through this portion of the OSHA.

16. Workers’ Compensation Board of Alberta
o Remembering the Basics Booklet
http://www.wcb.ab.ca/workingsafely/ergobook.asp
This booklet is “designed to alert you to the potential for an RSI and assist you in
preventing one from occurring.”

17. Workers’ Compensation Board of BC
o Ergonomics: http://ergonomics.healthandsafetycentre.org/s/Home.asp
Guides for identifying and preventing MSIs, as well as back pain, are available.

18. WSIB of Ontario
o Making Ergonomics Work:
http://www.wsib.on.ca/wsib/wsibsite.nsf/LookupFiles/DownloadableFileEr
gonomics/$File/ergonomics.pdf
This 6-page brochure outlines the role of the ergonomist, and what he/she can
do to minimize risk in the workplace. A series of frequently-asked questions
(FAQs) are provided at the end of the end of the document.
o Return to Work Bibliography:
http://www.wsib.on.ca/wsib/wsibsite.nsf/Public/RTWBibliography
This resource provides useful information about return-to work. The bibliogr

TYPES OF TECHNOLOGIES USED IN THE GARMENT INDUSTRY BY Leigh Hayden

Pre-production

CAD (computer-assisted design) software package for design, pattern-making, and marker-making. These software packages can be used in a few different ways. A base pattern can be made out of cardboard (“the old fashioned way”) and then placed on a digitizing table and its coordinates traced out to obtain a digital image of each pattern piece. Alternatively, instead of making the base pattern by hand, a new pattern can be made by electronically manipulating an already digitized pattern. In this way, developing new but not radically different styles and patterns can be done with relative ease. Sizing rules tell the computer how the dimensions of people grow. These sizing rules are not standard; they vary somewhat between companies and significantly between countries. With these rules, the computer can “grade” the pattern and enlarge or shrink the base pattern to obtain the pattern pieces for other sizes. Grading was traditionally done by hand and is a slow and difficult process. Once a pattern has been graded into all of the required sizes for a particular production run, a marker is developed with the aid of the computer to maximize fabric utilization. A marker is a map of how the different pattern pieces are laid out on the fabric. According to some sources, fabric is usually about 30% of the cost of the garment, so fabric waste minimization is essential to keep costs down. Marker development can be done manually, although it can take several hours and fabric utilization is usually not as efficient as it is when the computer is used. When the marker is completed it is usually printed out on a larger plotter and then delivered to the cutting floor. Most facilities we visited used Gerber technology for design, pattern making and grading, and marker making. The benefits of CAD technology are efficiency and accuracy. With CAD technology, businesses can develop products faster. In addition, since grading and marking is automated, the patterns are more accurate and the percentage of material usage is higher. CAD technology was first used in the garment industry in the 1980s.9 It has improved significantly in terms of functionality and user friendliness in the last five to ten years.

Another development in pre-production technology is 3-D body scanning. There are several different models of the 3-D body scanner, but they all do essentially the same thing—they automate measuring body dimensions. Automating this process does two things—it increases the accuracy of measurement (it is difficult to obtain accurate body measurements manually because of human variation and error),11 and it unobtrusively and quickly measures a vast number of body dimensions. Body scanning equipment, referred to as “booths”, ranges in price from USD

$25,000-$225,000. Some believe that in the near future it will be common for people to go to body scanning boutiques to have their measurements taken, receive an electronic copy of their measurements, and then download this information to a virtual store to purchase custom-made clothing online. Body scanning technology is the perfect complement for electronic clothing boutiques. An individual can use his or her data to either order custom-made clothes online or determine whether a particular ready-made style fits their own body properly. It is estimated that 38%-40% of all clothing purchased online is returned. Garment industry analysts project that body scanning technology will significantly decrease the return rate and increase profits of online stores.

Production

Spreading/Cutting

The first stage of production is cutting. Fabric is laid out on spreader tables in layers of 1 to 100, depending on the type of fabric and the size of the production run. A paper marker is placed on top of the fabric. Each pattern piece on the marker is identified with a code indicating the style of garment, size, colour, and type of piece. Smaller facilities with short production runs or custom-made orders do pattern cutting either with scissors or an electric hand-held fabric cutter. Some large volume facilities have invested in automated spreaders and cutters. At the plant, automated spreaders have been installed. Where ten people used to be employed to spread and cut fabric, in this plant it only requires two people, one to operate each machine. In the spreading area, fabric isbspread out into several layers on one end of a very long table. At the plant, air is blown up from the bottom of the spreader table so the fabric can be slid down the table to the cutting area once the fabric spreading is complete. In the cutting area, the table is equipped with a vacuum to keep the many layers of fabric in place. Although a paper marker is laid over the fabric, the electronic cutter does not follow the lines of the marker. The marker is used for labelling the pattern pieces. The marker is downloaded into the automated cutter. The operator starts the cutter and it quickly and accurately cuts the fabric. Once the cutting step is complete (whether the cutting is done by hand or with an automated cutter) the fabric pieces are bundled, labelled and sent to the sewing area.

United Production System (UPS)

A UPS is an overhead track where garment pieces are moved from one sewing step to another, in sequence, until the garment is complete. It was developed in the 1970s to help streamline the production process. It can save time and can improve efficiency by bringing the work to the sewing machine operator (SMO). The plant that we visited with the UPS system makes only one type of garment. The UPS system is ideal for this type of production because the production steps do not change. For facilities that make a variety of different garments in a variety of different styles. UPS set-up must be flexible because the order and number of sewing steps changes with each type of garment.

Modular Sewing

In modular sewing, a team of usually four SMOs (sewing machine operators) work together to complete a garment from start to finish. Each team member may be responsible for two or three steps in the construction. This type of work usually requires highly skilled and experienced sewing machine operators. They must be trained on a variety of machines and understand a multitude of different operations. a modular team system has been implemented to reduce in-progress inventory and speed up order filling so that rush orders can be shipped to the customer within 48 hours. This system also allows the firm to monitor the performance of each team and base bonuses on the number of garments produced above quota for each team. Bonuses are team-based rather than based on individual performance. If a team member is not performing to standard, the rest of the team pressures that person to increase their output.Thus, peer pressure as well as bonus incentives encourage SMOs to work harder and faster.

Stand-up Sewing Machines

There is some debate as to whether stand-up sewing machines are desirable.

The workers initially rejected the stand-up machines and many walked out. Given time, we were told, the sewing machine operators who remained on began to prefer them to the sit-down machines, and some SMOs who quit heard that it was a positive change and asked for their jobs back. Stand-up machines are in theory less fatiguing because they offer more mobility. While operating a stand-up machine, the operator stands on a micro-sensor pad to reduce fatigue and controls the machine using light-touch foot pedals. We were told that sitting down and bending over a machine all day is much more fatiguing and ergonomically taxing than standing at a machine. Thus, it is said that workers have accepted stand-up machines because they find the work less fatiguing and they also achieve higher efficiency, which means more bonuses and higher pay. Others facilities have not embraced the stand-up machines.

Other Sewing Machine Technology

Other sewing machine technology, such as thread cutters and machines that automatically place the sewing needle in the down position once the machine is stopped, have increased efficiency and ease of sewing.

Automated embroidery machines have replaced hand embroidery. An electronic copy of the desired logo or inscription is read by the machine and automatically stitched into the fabric. This type of work used to take hours of skilled labour, but now an operator simply places the fabric under the needle, instructs the machine to read the electronic file, and presses a button. Other production technology has focused on “small parts preparation”, work that is standard and simple. Other “small parts preparation” technology, such as automatic back pocket and label sewing, reduce the time and skill level needed for these steps.

For large-scale manufacturing, the lower labour costs in developing countries such as China and Mexico make a considerable impact on the cost of each garment piece, enough to easily make up for increased shipping costs and lead times.

Communication Technology

Large garment manufacturing firms in rely on sophisticated communication technology software systems. Communication technology is critical for larger multinational corporations in a variety ways. First, plants facility operate on an automatic ordering system. When the inventory levels of key garments for their customers (at least those who have agreed to use the automatic reorder

system) drop below a certain point, an order is automatically placed at the plant. Once the order comes in, it can be shipped within 48 hours (if the items are in their standard colours—otherwise the order will be shipped in over 48 hours). This ensures that stores have sufficient inventory, but stores do not have to overstock because thereorder time is so short.

The second type of communication technology involves relaying design information from design shops to manufacturing facilities in developing countries. Once a new garment has been designed, and the pattern developed and graded, the information must be sent overseas and the instructions for the garment construction must be communicated. Good communication is key, due to the cost of miscommunication and the significant barriers to communication, such as

language and geography. Communication technology to relay and discuss the information has been developed by CAD software companies, such as Gerber and Lectra, as part of their full suite. However, when one sight has a Gerber system, and the other has a Lectra system, there can be compatibility issues. Finally, another important feature of a software package such as Gerber or Lectra is specification communication. Companies that have their products manufactured in a number of different locations around the world must maintain standards and quality. Using industry-particular software, companies can communicate fabrication specifications to all of their customers to ensure their product needs are understood and met.

This article Sortir from A report for the Manitoba Research Allianceon Community Economic Development in the New Economy 2005

Crocking , Laundering, Dry cleaning

Burnt gas fumes

Light (Fastness)

Perspiration

Pressing, Sea water, Water, Chlorinated

pool water

Ozone

Colour Measurement

Colour Specification/Passing/Sorting

Whiteness, Colour difference

Dye strength

Dyeing and Finishing

Mercerization in Cotton

Identification of Dyeclass, Dye strength

Dyeing properties, Identification of

finishes

Evaluation of auxiliaries

Raw Materials and General

Fibre identification and content

Wool grade, Wool Fibre Length

Solvent extractable content

Feather/down mixtures (Lorch)

Non Fibrous Material on Fabric

Ash Content/Moisture Regain

Fibre Melting Point and Cross-Section

Pacifier Evaluation

Hazardous Products – Toys

Yarn Test

Linear density, Twist, Breaking Strength

Filament Count

Fabric Construction

Mass, Fabric Count, Weave, Yarn Crimp

Stitch length in knits, Yarn linear density

Fabric thickness

Frosting

Spectrophotometric Analysis

U.V. Radiation Transmittance, UPF Colour

Fabric Performance Test

Air permeability

Abrasion Resistance -

Accelerator/flex/Taber/ Martindale/Stoll/Stroll/Wyzenbeek

Blocking, Breaking strength, Bursting strength

Chlorine retention, Cold crack

Crease recovery (Angle method), dry or wet

Delamination of coating, Downproofness

Fabric Wrinkle Recovery

Microbiological resistance

Modulus (BSI)

Mothproofing Resistance (IWS)

Oil stain release, pH Value of Water Extract

Pilling resistance – Tumble Box, Random

tumble, Martindale or Brush

“R” / “Clo” value

Electrical Resistivity

Seam Slippage

Shrinkage on laundering,Domestic/Commercial

P.P. Rating

Shrinkage on wetting/steaming/dry cleaning

Snagging resistance, Static cling, Static decay

Stiffness (cantilever test)

Tearing strength – Elmendorf/Single rip or Trapezoid

Water absorption, Water permeability (k)

Water resistance

Water vapour transmission and Diffusion

Yarn shifting

Stretch and Recovery

Carpet Tests

CAN/CGSB-4.129M, CAN/CGSB-4.161M

Aachner (ISO 2551 dimensional stability)

Delamination, Density

Electrostatic properties

Hexapod, Pile face weight

Resilience to Static Load

Separate undercushion CAN/CGSB-20.23

Stain resistance

Tuft bind

Fabric Analysis and Troubleshooting

• Warp streak analysis

• Filling band analysis

• Barré analysis (circular knits)

• Foreign contaminant analysis

• Analysis of off-shade dyeings

• Cotton maturity evaluation

• Determination of sources of fabric holes and weak yarns (finished fabric)

• Fiber defect analysis

General Testing

• Yarn crimp (woven)

• Count and twist from yarn in fabric

• Dye-on-fiber

• Mock dyeing/leveling

• Strip dye/re-dye

• Color reflectance measurement

• Blend analysis

• Analysis of fiber distribution in yarn

• Denier by microscopy

• Yarn cross sections

• Chemical damage assessment

• Dye rate and capacity studies

• PET density determination

• Sonic modulus of filament or tow

ASTM Test Methods

• Fiber identification

• Qualitative textile analysis

• Flammability of apparel textiles

• Differential dyeing of cotton

• Extractable matter determination

• Moisture regain

• Boiling water and dry-heat shrinkage

• Moisture level in textiles

• Bow and skewness test for woven and knitted fabric

• Bulk determination for textured yarns

AATCC Test Methods

• Absorbency of bleached textiles

• Alkali in bleach baths containing hydrogen peroxide

• Appearance of apparel and other home textiles after repeated launderings

• Ash content of bleached cellulosic textiles

• Instrumental color measurement of textiles

• Colorfastness to acids and alkalis

• Colorfastness to bleaching with chlorine

• Colorfastness to bleaching with peroxide

• Dimensional changes in automatic home laundering of woven or knitted fabrics

• Dimensional changes in commercial laundering of woven or knit fabrics

• Extractable content of greige and/or prepared textiles

• Qualitative and quantitative fiber analysis

• Gray scale for color change

• Gray scale for staining

• Mercerization in cotton

• pH of water-extract from bleached textiles

• Whiteness of textiles

• Wrinkle-recovery of fabrics

The term textile can be applied to several types of materials under a couple of

related definitions. The most basic definition of a textile is a material that has been

fabricated by some type of weaving process. This definition is derived from the Latin

root of the work “textile,” textere, which means “to weave.” The term textile can also be

applied to materials manufactured by the interlacing of yarn-like materials, such as

objects made by braiding, knitting, and lacing, as well as some non-yarn based materials, such as felts, in which the fibres have gained coherence by mechanical treatments orchemical processes. In rare cases, pelts, hides, and plastics may also be considered textiles, especially when they are used in the manufacture of clothing items (Leene, 1972).

Textile Fibres

All textiles are made of fibres, that are technically defined as “a unit of matter

with a length at least 100 times its diameter, a structure of long chain molecules having adefinite preferred orientation, a diameter of 10-200 microns, and flexibility” (Landi,

1998, p. 8). Variations in fibres on both the microscopic and the visible levels can have a great impact on the behavior and deterioration of a textile object, and learning the basic properties of textiles can greatly aid in caring for them. There are three major factors that determine the final characteristics of any textile- the fibre form, the source of the fibre, and the method of constructing the final product (Landi, 1998).

Fibre Sources and Forms

Fibres come in one of two forms based on the length of the fibre. A filament is a

fibre of continuous length. Both natural and man made filaments can be extremely long.

Silk worm cocoons, for example, can contain about two miles of continuous twin

filaments, and man made filaments from spinning machines can be even longer. Filament yarns are typically thin, smooth, and lustrous. A staple, on the other hand, is a fibre of limited length ranging from about one-quarter of an inch to many inches in length. Staple fibre yarns tend to be thicker, fibrous, and non-lustrous. (Miller, 1969).

There are three catagories of fibres based on source- natural fibers, mineral fibers,

and man made fibers. Mineral fibres include glass and asbestos and are normally not

directly involved in textile production so only the natural and man-made fibres will be

discussed here. All natural and man-made fibres on a microscopic level are built of

organic polymers, large carbon based molecules composed of a single unit repeated many times. Different types of polymers result in different fibre, and eventually different

textile characteristics (Landi, 1998).

Natural Fibres

Among the natural fibers, silk and wool come from animal sources while the

common vegetable sources are cotton and flax (Landi, 1998 and Miller, 1969). The

silkworm, Bombyx mori, produces silk fibres when it spins a cocoon to protect itself in

the pupa stage (Finch and Putnam, 1985). The fibres are constructed from amino acids

that are cross-linked and generally oriented parallel to the fibre axis. This is referred to

as a crystalline chain structure, and this structure is responsible for the strength of silk

fibres. Wool fibres are also constructed of amino acids except they are arranged into long helical (spiral shaped) molecules making wool much more extensible than silk (Landi, 1998). The fibres, because of this structure, also tend to shrink and mat together when washed in hot, soapy water. This is referred to as felting (Miller, 1969). Wool fibres, like human hairs, are difficult to press into sharp folds, and permanent folds can only be achieved through chemical processes. The natural function of wool is to keep the animal on which is grows dry. Even when incorporated into a textile object, wool fibres retain the ability to absorb up to one-third of their own weight in water before feeling damp to the touch (Finch and Putnam, 1985).

Vegetable fibres are constructed of cellulose polymers which join together to

form long, flexible, and very strong long-chain molecules (Landi, 1998). The function of

flax is to hold the flax plant upright and carry moisture through the plant, thus linen

(fabric that is made from flax fibres) will have a tendency to draw moisture to itself.

Cotton fibres come from the seed heads of the cotton plant and surround the seed before it drops. Both cotton and flax are stronger when wet and humidity is a requirement for weaving cotton fibres (Finch and Putnam, 1985).

Man-Made and Metal Fibres

Man-made fibres were first developed in an attempt to make artificial silk, and

typically have a high degree of crystallinity like silk. While no true substitutes for silk

were ever developed, the research did lead to the development of several types of manmade fibres that can be produced via various chemical processes. These fibres can be divided into two categories- regenerated fibres and synthetic fibers.

Regenerated fibres are made from natural materials that have been dissolved and

then extruded as filaments. Regenerated fibres made from cellulose, commonly termed

rayon, have become the most commercially important. Synthetic fibres include

polyamides (commonly known as nylons), polyesters, and polyvinyls (Landi, 1998 and

Miller, 1969). Metal can also be fashioned into a filament like form and used in textiles.

Consequently, metal threads are sometimes classified as a type of fibre. Gold and silver

alloyed with baser metals such as copper are the most common materials used for metal thread production. The metal is beaten or drawn into very thin laminates and usually wound around a central fibre core that can either be silk, linen, or, in rare cases, cotton. Sometimes the laminate is attached to paper or an animal membrane before it is used. Metal fibres are typically more resistant to deterioration than organic fibres and are often the only intact parts of very ancient textiles (Landi, 1998).

From Fibre to Fabric

Yarn Based Structures

In all fabrics except bonded fabrics and felt, fibres are twisted into thicker

structures called yarns or threads before being used. The process of creating yarns is

called spinning. Yarns can be spun in either the clockwise or counter-clockwise

direction. One direction is termed the Z direction and one is termed the S direction.

After the initial yarn is spun, several yarns can then be twisted together to form ply yarns (i.e. two ply, three ply). These types of yarns are typically thicker and stronger than single ply yarns (Landi, 1998).

Yarns can be woven, knitted, braided, and laced or netted to create fabric. Each

type of structure has an effect on the elasticity and durability of the final product.

Diagrams of the different structures are provided in Appendix A. Woven fabrics consist

of two series of threads that are interlaced at right angles to one another. The two thread series are termed the warp and the weft, with the warp threads running the length of the fabric and the weft threads running the width of the fabric. The simplest form of weaving, plain weave, is shown in figure 1 of Appendix A. The edge on the long sides of a piece of woven fabric is termed the selvedge. The selvedge provides a neat edge to the fabric as well as a secure grip for finishing machinery in machine made fabric. It is often different in appearance and structure to the rest of the fabric. Depending on the method of weaving, the density and type of interlacing can vary, both of which affect the final appearance and handle of the fabric. In general, no matter what method of weaving is used, the fabric will show little capacity for stretching beyond the natural elasticity of the materials in either the warp or weft direction. Instead, a woven piece of fabric will stretch more easily in the bias direction, the diagonal of the fabric that is normally at a forty-five degree angle between the warp and the weft. Knitted structures are formed by interlocking loops of yarn, and, like weaving, there are several methods of knitting fabrics. A weft-knitted structure, so termed because it is constructed of horizontal rows of loops that are individually locked with the corresponding loop in the next horizontal row, is shown in figure 2 of Appendix A. Vertical rows of interlocked loops are termed wales and horizontal rows are termed courses. Knitted fabrics are much more susceptible to stretching and distortion than woven fabrics because any tension exerted on the fabric will distort the individual loops that form the fabric. Knitted fabrics are also easily unraveled, and significant damage can be caused by simply breaking one loop that, in turn, causes other loops to be released. Lacing and netting were formerly hand techniques in which yarns are twined or knotted around each other to form various open structures. Now most lace and netting is made by machine. A simple net structure is shown in figure 3 of Appendix A. Items made by lacing and netting are even more dimensionally unstable than knitted fabrics are (Miller, 1969) and the uses of such fabrics are limited; however, several types of banners were constructed with net bases in the nineteenth century. Advertisements for such

banners can be seen in figure 4 of Appendix A (Collins, 1979). Braiding involves the interlacing of yarns diagonally to form a narrow flat or tubular structure. A typical braid is illustrated in figure 5 of Appendix A. It is difficult to form large braided pieces either by hand or by machine due to the fact that all the constituent yarns must be kept in motion simultaneously and separately. Shoe laces and other kinds of cording as well as decorative braiding are common braided products. The diagonal direction of the yarns allows braids to be somewhat extensible in length and width (Miller, 1969).

Fibre Based Structures

Under the influence of heat, moisture, and mechanical pressure some types of

fibre can be made to mat together to form fabric without the need for yarn. Fabrics made in this way are called felts. Wool and a few other animal fibres are most suited to this type of fabric construction. Felt fabrics have no grain because the fibres do not lie in any particular direction, and because of this, felt can be cut in any direction without fraying or unraveling. Dense felts can be very strong and durable, but are generally stiff and do not drape well. Softer and suppler felts result from less dense fiber structures but there is also a loss of strength and a vulnerability to distortion associated with thinner felts that makes them unsuitable for most purposes (Miller, 1969). Pennants are a common type of historical felt textile in the United States (Collins, 1979). Fibres other than wool can also be bonded together through chemical rather than mechanical processes. These types of fabrics are referred to as bonded fibre fabrics. Bonded fibre fabrics are similar in structure to felt, although some types can be made with the majority of the fibres lying in one direction creating a fabric with a noticeable

grain. Bonded fibre research has not, however, been able to overcome the suppleness and durability problems shared with felt (Miller, 1969).

Textile Finishes

Any given textile will probably undergo one or more finishing processes before it

is used and many processes have been in use for hundreds of years. These processes are too numerous to list here, but they all serve at least one of the following purposes-

• to enhance the appearance of the fabric

• to improve the texture or weight

• to increase flexibility, durability, or ease of care

Finishing processes can be carried out either before or after the textile

construction process. Mercerizing, sizing, and weighing are some examples of finishing

processes that have been widely used for several centuries (Landi, 1998). Mercerizing isa finishing technique used on cotton yarn and cloth. Various concentrations of sodium

hydroxide, an alkali substance, are applied to make the finished textile piece more

lustrous, stronger, more absorbent, and easier to dye. Sizing is also a finishing technique for cotton. Gelatin sizing can be used to give the cotton a coated a papery look, and animal glue sizing made from fish skins can be used to give a greater luster (King, 1985). Weighting is “the process of loading either yarns or fabric with minerals, sugar, or other foreign matters mixed with the dyes, to make the goods look thick or feel heavy” (King, 1985, p.173). In silks this finish compensates for the loss of the natural compound sericin which is lost during the manufacturing process (Finch and Putnam, 1985). Other finishing methods were also used on silks to make lower quality silks appear more costly. These finishes employed gum, starch, oil, and wax based materials, most of which will not withstand washing (King, 1985).

Dyeing is another of the more common finishes with certain dyes becoming more

popular during certain periods. Early bandannas are often referred to as “turkey red”

bandannas because they were dyed a solid red color before a pattern was applied via

bleaching or printing. Figure 6 in Appendix A is an example of this technique (Collins,

1979). Early dyes were obtained from natural sources and varied greatly in quality and

ease of use. In 1856, W.H. Perkin, a British scientist discovered the fist synthetic dye by

accident and this lead to the development of a wide range of synthetic dyes that

eventually replaced natural dyes. Even with synthetic dyes, however, dying is a difficult

and complicated process due to the fact that many dyes on their own are not inclined to

be colorfast and most fabrics on their own are not capable of absorbing dyes, especially

in the case of man made fibres (Miller, 1968). Natural dyes, for example, almost always

required a metal salt to be applied to the cloth before dying to increase the affinity of the

dye for the cloth and, in some cases, to increase colorfastness or change the color of the dye (Landi, 1998).

Cut and Paste From

Basic Textile Care: Structure, Storage, and Display

Elizabeth Bittner

INF 392E Introduction to the Structure and Technology of Records Materials Pavelka Fall 2004

http://webspace.utexas.edu/ecb82/textile_care.doc

gagal

1831 – ia mengalami kebangkrutan dalam usahanya.
1832 – ia menderita kekalahan dalam pemilihan tingkat lokal.

1833 – ia kembali menderita kebangkrutan.
1835 – istrinya meninggal dunia.

1836 – ia menderita tekanan mental sedemikian rupa, sehingga hampir
saja masuk rumah sakit jiwa.

1837 – ia menderita kekalahan dalam suatu kontes pidato.
1840 – ia gagal dalam pemilihan anggota senat Amerika Serikat. 1842 -
ia menderita kekalahan untuk duduk di dalam kongres Amerika Serikat.

1848 – ia kalah lagi di konggres Amerika Serikat.
1855 – ia gagal lagi di senat Amerika Serikat.

1856 – ia kalah dalam pemilihan untuk menduduki kursi wakil presiden
Amerika Serikat.
1858 – ia kalah lagi di senat Amerika Serikat.

1860 – ia menjadi presiden Amerika Serikat.

kita mengenalnya sebagai Abraham Lincoln.

SOICHIRO HONDA : “Lihat Kegagalan Saya”

Saat merintis bisnisnya Soichiro Honda selalu diliputi
kegagalan.

Ia sempat jatuh sakit, kehabisan uang, dikeluarkan
dari kuliah.

Namun ia trus bermimpi dan bermimpi…

Cobalah amati kendaraan yang melintasi jalan raya.
Pasti, mata Anda selalu terbentur pada Honda, baik
berupa mobil maupun motor. Merk kendaran ini menyesaki
padatnya lalu lintas, sehingga layak dijuluki “raja
jalanan”.

Namun, pernahkah Anda tahu, sang pendiri “kerajaan”
Honda – Soichiro Honda – diliputi kegagalan. Ia juga
tidak menyandang gelar insinyur, lebih-lebih Profesor
seperti halnya B.J. Habibie, mantan Presiden RI. Ia
bukan siswa yang memiliki otak cemerlang. Di kelas,
duduknya tidak pernah di depan, selalu menjauh dari
pandangan guru.

“Nilaiku ?jelek di sekolah. Tapi saya tidak bersedih,
karena dunia saya disekitar mesin, motor dan sepeda,”
tutur tokoh ini, yang meninggal pada usia 84 tahun,
setelah dirawat di RS Juntendo, Tokyo, akibat mengidap
lever.

Kecintaannya kepada mesin, mungkin ‘warisan’ dari
ayahnya yang membuka bengkel reparasi pertanian, di
dusun Kamyo, distrik Shizuko, Jepang Tengah, tempat
kelahiran Soichiro Honda. Di bengkel, ayahnya memberi
cathut (kakak tua) untuk mencabut paku. Ia juga sering
bermain di tempat penggilingan padi melihat mesin
diesel yang menjadi motor penggeraknya.

Di situ, lelaki kelahiran 17 November 1906, ini dapat
berdiam diri berjam-jam. Di usia 8 tahun, ia mengayuh
sepeda sejauh 10 mil, hanya ingin menyaksikan pesawat
terbang.

Ternyata, minatnya pada mesin, tidak sia-sia. Ketika
usianya 12 tahun, Honda berhasil menciptakan sebuah
sepeda pancal dengan model rem kaki.

Tapi, benaknya tidak bermimpi menjadi usahawan
otomotif. Ia sadar berasal dari keluarga miskin.?
Apalagi fisiknya le! mah, tidak tampan, sehingga
membuatnya rendah diri.

Di usia 15 tahun, Honda hijrah ke Jepang, bekerja Hart
Shokai Company. Bosnya, Saka Kibara, sangat senang
melihat cara kerjanya. Honda teliti dan cekatan dalam
soal mesin. Setiap suara yang mencurigakan, setiap oli
yang bocor, tidak luput dari perhatiannya. Enam tahun
bekerja disitu, menambah wawasannya tentang
permesinan. Akhirnya, pada usia 21 tahun, bosnya
mengusulkan membuka suatu kantor cabang di Hamamatsu.

Tawaran ini tidak ditampiknya.

Di Hamamatsu prestasi kerjanya tetap membaik. Ia
selalu menerima reparasi yang ditolak oleh bengkel
lain. Kerjanya pun cepat memperbaiki mobil pelanggan
sehingga berjalan kembali. Karena itu, jam kerjanya
larut malam, dan terkadang sampai subuh. Otak
jeniusnya tetap kreatif.

Pada zaman itu, jari-jari mobil terbuat dari kayu,
! hingga tidak baik meredam goncangan. Ia punya gagasan
untuk menggantikan ruji-ruji itu dengan logam.
Hasilnya luarbiasa. Ruji-ruji logamnya laku keras, dan
diekspor ke seluruh dunia. Di usia 30, Honda
menandatangani patennya yang pertama.

Setelah menciptakan ruji, Honda ingin melepaskan diri
dari bosnya, membuat usaha bengkel sendiri. Ia mulai
berpikir, spesialis apa yang dipilih? Otaknya tertuju
kepada pembuatan Ring Pinston, yang dihasilkan oleh
bengkelnya sendiri pada tahun 1938. Sayang, karyanya
itu ditolak oleh Toyota, karena dianggap tidak
memenuhi standar. Ring buatannya tidak lentur, dan
tidak laku dijual. Ia ingat reaksi teman-temannya
terhadap kegagalan itu. Mereka menyesalkan dirinya
keluar dari bengkel.

Kuliah

Karena kegagalan itu, Honda jatuh sakit cukup serius.
Dua bulan kemudian, kesehatannya pulih kembali. Ia
kembali memimpin bengkelnya.

Tapi, soal Ring Pinston itu, belum juga ada solusinya.
Demi mencari jawaban, ia kuliah lagi untuk menambah
pengetahuannya tentang mesin. Siang hari, setelah
pulang kuliah – pagi hari, ia langsung ke bengkel,
mempraktekan pengetahuan yang baru diperoleh. Setelah
dua tahun menjadi mahasiswa, ia akhirnya dikeluarkan
karena jarang mengikuti kuliah.

“Saya merasa sekarat, karena ketika lapar tidak diberi
makan, melainkan dijejali penjelasan bertele-tele
tentang hukum makanan dan pengaruhnya,” ujar Honda,
yang gandrung balap mobil.

Kepada Rektornya, ia jelaskan maksudnya kuliah bukan
mencari ijasah. Melainkan pengetahuan. Penjelasan ini
justru dianggap penghinaan.

Berkat kerja kerasnya, desain Ring Pinston-nya
diterima. Pihak Toyota memberi! kan kontrak, sehingga
Honda berniat mendirikan pabrik. Eh malangnya, niatan
itu kandas. Jepang, karena siap perang, tidak
memberikan dana. Ia pun tidak kehabisan akal
mengumpulkan modal dari sekelompok orang untuk
mendirikan pabrik. Lagi-lagi musibah datang.

Setelah perang meletus, pabriknya terbakar dua kali.

Namun, Honda tidak patah semangat. Ia bergegas
mengumpulkan karyawannya. Mereka diperintahkan
mengambil sisa kaleng bensol yang dibuang oleh kapal
Amerika Serikat, digunakan sebagai bahan mendirikan
pabrik. Tanpa diduga, gempa bumi meletus menghancurkan
pabriknya, sehingga diputuskan menjual pabrik Ring
Pistonnya ke Toyota. Setelah itu, Honda mencoba
beberapa usaha lain. Sayang semuanya gagal.

Akhirnya, tahun 1947, setelah perang Jepang kekurangan
bensin. Di sini kondisi ekonomi Jepang porak-poranda.
Sampai-sampai Honda tidak dapat menjual mobilnya untuk
membeli makanan bagi keluarganya. Dalam keadaan
terdesak, ia memasang motor kecil pada sepeda.

Siapa sangka, “sepeda motor” – cikal bakal lahirnya
mobil Honda – itu diminati oleh para tetangga. Mereka
berbondong-bondong memesan, sehingga Honda kehabisan
stok. Disinilah, Honda kembali mendirikan pabrik
motor.

Sejak itu, kesuksesan tak pernah lepas dari tangannya.
Motor Honda berikut mobinya, menjadi “raja” jalanan
dunia, termasuk Indonesia.

Bagi Honda, janganlah melihat keberhasilan dalam
menggeluti industri otomotif. Tapi lihatlah
kegagalan-kegagalan yang dialaminya. “Orang melihat
kesuksesan saya hanya satu persen. Tapi, mereka tidak
melihat 99% kegagalan saya”, tuturnya

Apa yang tidak bisa dibuat oleh CHINA? Dari sekedar meniru berbagai produk Negara maju hingga mengkreasikan produknya sendiri. Berbagai jenis produk mereka bisa membuat dan memasarkannya! Dari sekedar tusuk gigi, mainan anak, makanan, sandang, asesoris, elektronik hingga permesinan dengan teknologi mutakhir. Sulit mencari produk yang tanpa label Made In China. Hebatnya lagi mereka mampu memasarkan berbagai produknya tersebut ke seluruh dunia sesuai dengan kualitas dan harga produk yang mereka ciptakan. Meski terkadang kualitasnya menengah ke bawah namun soal harga produk China sangat memenuhi selera konsumen terutama di Negara berkembang. Industri di China juga berkembang dari hulu ke hilir semua industry tersuport dari bahan baku, permesinan hingga tenaga kerjanya. Sebagai salah satu Negara berpenduduk terbesar di dunia China mampu mengoptimalkan potensi sumber daya alamnya dan sumber daya manusianya.

China tidak pernah merasa malu untuk mengembangkan industry yang berteknologi rendah. Hampir semua barang yang dibutuhkan manusia mereka mampu membuat sekaligus memasarkannya. Ketertinggalan teknologi dari Negara maju mereka siasati dengan meniru produk dari Negara maju. Meski kualitas produknya tidak sehebat aslinya namun dari sisi harga China mampu membuatnya jauh lebih murah. Cerdasnya lagi mereka mampu mencari tempat-tempat pemasaran yang sesuai dengan kualitas dan harga dari produknya. Mereka juga sangat percaya diri dan mampu mengembangkan brand Made in China meski produk tersebut meniru dari produk Negara lain yang lebih maju. Industri China juga memiliki value chain yang baik semua tersuport dari hulu ke hilir.

Mengapa kita tidak meniru China?………………………………………………………

From: “Fashion Forward Introduction to the Apparel Industry February 2002″  prepared Assessing the Future of Apparel Manufacturing in Los Angeles County by Los Angeles Regional Workforce Preparation and Economic Development Collaborative

Apparel manufacturing involves at least 14 different steps, beginning with the idea or design

concept and ending with a finished product.

Research and Development

Market research is the first step in the apparel production process. Market research can be

defined as “the systematic and objective approach to the development and provision of

information for the marketing management decision-making process.”7 Designers and

merchandisers may conduct market research in order to forecast fashion trends. Trade

associations also conduct market research to provide important information to apparel

manufacturers.

Market research can be divided into two main categories: consumer research and market

research. Consumer research generates information about consumer behavior and

characteristics. Consumer research is conducted formally and informally, using a variety of

methods. Information may be collected by polling consumers in target demographics, as well as

by observing what youth wear. Designers tap both formal and informal sources—trade

publications, popular media (such as consumer magazines and newspapers), television, movies,

sports figures, retailing reports, trends popular in Europe, and ethnic attire—for clothing

inspiration.8

Market research includes both short-range and long-range forecasting. Short-range forecasting

includes:

• Analyzing consumer spending patterns,

• Tracking sociological, psychological, political, and global trends,

• Researching business trends (such as new computer technologies), and

• Studying competitors’ products and tracking what is selling at retail.

In contrast, long-range forecasting includes:

• Determining the desired increased sales growth for a company,

• Predicting retailing changes, and

• Studying competitors’ products and tracking what is selling at retail.

In addition, companies and designers research color, fabric, and trimmings for each clothing line.

Designers often collect fabric swatches and garments for future inspiration. These may include

antique fabrics and trims as well as clothing or fabrics from other countries and cultures.

Product Design

Many apparel companies hire both merchandisers and designers as part of their design and

development team. Merchandisers often oversee and guide the design team to determine what,

when, and how much apparel to produce. At planning meetings, designers use concept boards to

present their ideas to the development and management teams. These concept boards are

typically collages of color and fabric swatches, fashion sketches, and magazines photos that

capture the theme or mood of the design ideas. Previous season’s sales figures, sales forecasts

for the new season, and the overall outlook of upcoming seasons will also be discussed in these

planning sessions.

Designers begin to materialize their ideas using hand sketches, off-the-rack garments, technical

drawings, three-dimensional draping on dress forms, or computer-aided design (CAD). CAD is

becoming increasingly popular, partially due to the ease with which images can be redrawn,

altered, and modified; and partially attributable to the active marketing efforts of apparel

computer system manufacturers such as Gerber Technology, Lectra Systems, Pad Systems, Inc.,

Snap Fashun and Tukatech, Inc.

After the design team reviews the line, designers transform those final designs destined for actual

production into sample garments. If the product is to be made offshore, the final designs are

translated into garment specification sheets. A garment specification sheet consists of all the

important information required to complete a pattern and prototype of the design. Increasingly,

garment specification software programs facilitate this process.

Fabric Selection and Inspection

Designers specify the fabric as part of their design concept. Designers may develop new styles

for fabrics that have been successful. In other cases, untested fabrics may inspire new designs.

Once the final fabric has been determined, the manufacturer contacts a textile supplier and places

a tentative order for that fabric (also called “taking an early position”), based on estimates of the

line’s sales.

Apparel manufacturers inspect the fabric stock upon arrival, so that any fabric irregularities are

caught early in the production process. Textile producers also generally inspect fabrics before

sending them to manufacturers. These inspections are an important part of quality control, which

takes place at nearly every stage of apparel production.

New fabric printing technologies have dramatically decreased the amount of time between

ordering a fabric sample and receiving it, if the yarn and base fabric are available. For short-run,

limited volume apparel, man-made fabric sample prints can be designed and printed in less than

48 hours. For larger volume orders, fabric printing can take up to 10 weeks.

Patternmaking

Once a designer has completed a drawing of a garment, it is transformed into a sample pattern.

“Patternmaking” is the process of creating all the correctly sized pieces needed to make a

complete garment.

For many smaller manufacturers, pattern making is still done on paper because the cost of

computerized systems remains prohibitive. The patternmaker may use one of the following

techniques to develop a sample pattern. S/he may “manipulate” a new pattern by using

geometric rules to modify or alter existing pattern pieces. S/he may translate a design that has

been “draped” and pinned on a dress form by converting the shapes of the draped garment

sections into paper pattern pieces. Alternatively, s/he may pin pieces of muslin to a garment

being copied and rub tailor’s chalk over the seams and darts, making a “muslin rub.” The chalk

markings are then used to create a flat paper pattern.

From this initial pattern, a sample garment is developed. The sample process allows a designer

to correct any problems inherent in translating a one-dimensional sketch into a two-dimensional

garment; it ensures that the designer’s fabric yardage specifications are accurate; and it provides

an opportunity to spot potential production problems inherent in a design. Once the sample is

made, the manufacturer makes a small batch of duplicates for its sales force to test market. If

they sell well, the garment goes into larger volume production.

Although many firms still make patterns by hand, larger manufacturers make production patterns

on a computer using CAD software. Other systems have been developed that allow

patternmakers to create patterns manually by using a life-sized, sensitized table and a stylus

attached to a computer. As the patternmaker indicates points with the stylus, the pattern pieces

are automatically entered into the CAD system where they can immediately be accessed for

grading and marking. Although pattern making is becoming increasingly computerized,

patternmakers still must learn the manual method because making patterns manually develops an

advanced understanding of garment construction, knowledge that cannot yet be replaced by a

computer.

Grading

Patterns initially are made in only one size. In order to produce clothing that fits various body

types and sizes, the pattern pieces must be increased or decreased geometrically to create a

complete range of sizes. The process of resizing the initial pattern is called “grading.” Each

company determines its own grade specifications for each size, and size specifications vary

slightly from manufacturer to manufacturer.

Although many small firms still use traditional grading methods, grading, like patternmaking, is

becoming increasingly computerized. Using a CAD system, the pattern can be resized according

to a predetermined table of sizing increments (or “grade rules”). The computerized plotter can

then print out the pattern in each size. Because the productivity gains are so great, small- to

medium-sized manufacturers are beginning to acquire their own CAD systems for grading.

Alternatively, they may use an outside grading service to perform this function.

Marking

Once the pattern is graded, the fabric must be prepared for cutting. In order to spread the fabric

properly, the spreader must know how the pattern pieces will be placed on the fabric. “Marking”

refers to the process of placing pattern pieces to maximize the number of patterns that can be cut

out of a given piece of fabric. Firms strive for “tight” markers largely because fabric is one of a

manufacturer’s most significant business costs, often exceeding the cost of labor. Although

markers can be made by hand or using CAD software, the computerized method is up to eight

times faster. Once a marker is completed, a CAD system can use a plotter to print a full size

layout on a long sheet of paper. This layout becomes the guide for the cutter.

Spreading

“Spreading” is the process of unwinding large rolls of fabric onto long, wide tables in

preparation for cutting each piece of a garment. The number of layers of fabric is dictated by

the number of garments desired and the fabric thickness. Spreading can be done by hand or

machine. Depending upon the fabric and cutting technology, up to 200 layers of fabric may be

cut at one time. Fabrics that are more difficult to handle are generally cut in thinner stacks.

Cutting

Once the marker is made, pattern pieces must be cut out of the specified fabric, a process called

“cutting.” Currently, several cutting techniques exist, ranging from low- to high-tech.

Although scissors are used very rarely—only when working with very small batches or sensitive

fabrics—cutting continues to be done by hand, particularly in many lower volume

establishments. Here, cutters guide electric cutting machines around the perimeter of pattern

pieces, cutting through the fabric stack. An electric drill may be used to make pattern notches.

The accuracy and efficiency of this system is considerably less than in computerized cutting

systems.

Computerized cutting systems are achieving more widespread use as technology costs decrease

and labor costs rise. These computer-driven automated cutters utilize vacuum technology to hold

stacks of fabric in place while cutting. Cutting blades are sharpened automatically based upon

the type of fabric being cut. Gerber Garment Technology manufactures one of the most

commonly used cutting systems. This technology has the advantage of being highly accurate

and fast, but does cost considerably more than other cutting techniques.

Bundling

“Bundling” is the process of disassembling the stacked and cut pieces and reassembling them in

production lots grouped by garment unit, color dye lot, and number of garments. Manufacturers

use a variety of bundling methods depending upon their needs, with four basic systems being the

most common among local manufacturers10:

1. Item bundling – all pieces that comprise a garment are bundled together.

2. Group bundling – several (10-20) garments are put together in a bundle and given to a

single operator or team to sew.

3. Progressive bundling – pieces corresponding to specific sections of the garment (such

as sleeves or a collar) are bundled together and given to one operator. Other

operators sew other parts of the garment, which are then assembled into the finished

garment in the final phase.

4. Unit production system (UPS) – individual garment pieces are delivered to sewers

using a computerized, fully mechanized “assembly line” that runs throughout the

manufacturing facility. Using a UPS computer monitoring system, a manufacturer

can fully track the production of a garment, identify where sewing slowdowns are

occurring, and reroute garment pieces to other sewers who work more quickly.

Gerber Garment Technology Inc. manufactures a UPS system, which eliminates the need for

passing apparel piece bundles from worker to worker. This lowers labor costs because

employees spend less time handling bundles and more time sewing. It also facilitates short-cycle

manufacturing.

Modular or “team based” manufacturing is another type of bundling that combines some of the

above characteristics. Developed in Japan, it is the grouping of sewing operators into teams of

eight to ten. Rather than each sewer performing a single task, they work together on a garment

from start to finish. One-third of the U.S. apparel industry has switched to either unit production

or modular manufacturing. In Los Angeles, however, only a few major manufacturers engage in

computerized unit production (constituting about ten percent of total production) while the

majority of contractors still use progressive bundling.11

Bundling workers also carry out important quality control functions. They inspect the garment

pieces for cutting problems, fabric irregularities, or any other problems that may have occurred

in production thus far.

Sewing

This is the main assembly stage of the production process, where sewers stitch fabric pieces

together, and a garment is assembled. Computerized sewing machines, costing upwards of

$100,000, can be programmed to sew a specific number of stitches to perform a standard

operation, such as setting a zipper or sewing a collar. However, even though new machines

mechanize and hasten the sewing process, sewing remains largely labor-intensive.

There are four general types of sewing machines: single-needle machines, overlock machines,

blind-stitch machines, and specialized machines. Single needle machines are most common, as

are their operators. Because operating more complicated machines requires additional training,

there is frequently an oversupply of single-needle operators and a shortage of sewers who can

use other machines.

Sewers need to be familiar with many different types of fabric and how to stitch each, but they

usually specialize in a particular fabric or a particular machine. Working with cotton knit fabrics

is very different from working with denim, silk, or linen. Learning how to work with each fabric

type is part of the training—usually informal—that sewers undergo. Sewers may also specialize

in zipper-setting, embroidery, and other hand stitching techniques.

Sewers may also affix labels. Certain labels identify the garment as belonging to a particular line

and designer. Other labels inform the consumer of fabric content, care instructions, country of

origin, size, or production by a union shop.

Pressing or Folding

Some pressing, termed “underpressing,” may be done in the course of assembling a garment, for

example, pressing seams open or ironing a collar. Most pressing is done after assembly to

improve the appearance of a garment. In other cases, especially with knits, garments are simply

folded instead of pressed. Although pressing remains largely a manual task, new automated

processes exist that apply force and steam to garments placed over a body form.

Finishing and Detailing

“Finishing” is the addition of special detailing such as pleats, embroidery and screen printing to a

garment. This includes hand stitching (unseen handwork done inside collars and lapels to give

them shape) and its automated substitutes. This may also include adding buttons, hooks, eyes, or

trims, as well as clipping loose threads. All finishing of moderate- and lower-priced garments is

done by machine.

Dyeing and Washing

For some garments, dyeing is done after final assembly in order to ensure a perfect color match

for items intended to be worn together. In jeans manufacturing, washing is often a final stage in

finishing in which various washing techniques are used to give denim a ‘stonewashed’ look, or

faded, bleached, and aged appearances.

Quality Control

Quality control helps to ensure that all products meet production standards and match the

original sample. Quality control occurs throughout the production process, but once a garment is

constructed, quality controllers perform a final check. Quality controllers inspect garments for

sewing irregularities, uncut threads, measurement errors, fabric imperfections, and other similar

flaws.

Ticketing and Bar-coding

Increasingly, retailers request that manufacturers supply them with “hanger ready” garments; in

other words, the garments must be pre-ticketed with bar-coded price tags attached and hung on

the hangers the retailers will use. Previously, retailers were responsible for ticketing, but

retailers have shifted this burden to manufacturers. A contractor or a distribution warehouse

routinely handles the ticketing.

During textile finishing, properties are added to textile articles so that they will be appreciated by a large public. To obtain this change, the textile article has to pass through preparatory operations which will facilitate the next operations of dyeing and (chemical) finishing.

1. Preparatory operations

The preparatory operations performed are :

1.1 Desizing

Operation during which the sizing product applied to the warp yarns before passing onto the loom is removed.

In the case of woven or knitted fabrics and during spinning, the yarns are often treated with oil or wax to augment the velocity and to assure a better quality. On the other hand, these lubricants have a negative effect on dyeing (they prevent the colorants from penetrating into the fibres.

Cleaning (also called desizing or boiling off) removes the oils, waxes and other dirty spots.

Moreover, because most processes are performed under tension, what tends to elongate the fibres, yarns and fabrics, the cleaning process allows them to take back a desired shape by relaxing them.

There are two cleaning methods: desizing with water and detergent and dry-cleaning.

1.2 Washing

During the washing process, all improper products are removed from textiles such as grease or dust… that usually remain on natural fibres or dirt on chemical fibres.

In the case of wool, carbonising is often associated with washing to remove vegetable materials (thistles, straw…) from woollen fibre flocks.

1.3 Mercerising

This adds a better resistance to cotton, lustre and a higher capacity to absorb water and chemicals by modifying the internal structure (amorphous and crystalline zones).

Mercerised cotton is often used for sewing thread.

1.4 Bleaching

Certain fabrics need to be bleached before dyeing or to arrive at very white products. This is in particular so for cotton, linen, ramie, etc., since they are not white in their natural state.

Textiles that will be dyed in very pale colours deed to be bleached beforehand to obtain the right shade.
Fabrics that are white in their final usage are usually bleached and then treated with an optical azure to obtain a very bright and beautiful white

Bleaching may be done by a dyeing apparatus or on a continuous stenter. On the continuous stenter, the fabric is pulled through a series of bleaching and washing baths in its full width by means of rollers. Bleaching is either done with chloride or peroxides depending on the fibre and applied colorants. However, extreme care is needed to neutralize any residual chloride before dyeing if chloride is used during bleaching.

2. Dyestuffs

Dyestuffs used to add colour to textiles are chemical agents known as dyestuffs or pigments. Dyestuffs are most frequently used. There are hundreds of available dyestuffs. They are subdivided in several categories. Each one of them is defined by its chemical structure. The most frequently used dyestuffs are :

Direct dyestuffs: used on celluloid fibres (such as cotton, linen, rayon…). They offer a wide variety of colours but the colours are not as bright of intense as one may wish. These dyestuffs have a poor fastness to washing.

Reactive dyestuffs: used on celluloid fibres, protein fibres (wool and silk) and polyamide. These dyestuffs offer a good fastness and allow to obtain very bright colours.

Vat dyestuffs: may be used on cotton, acrylics and polyamides. They are regarded as having a better fastness than any other dyestuff class. They are used for textiles requiring colours with an enhanced fastness to commercial laundering against high temperatures and sometimes to bleaching. (Examples: uniforms, commercial tablecloths, etc). These dyestuffs contain two forms: one is reduced, the other oxidized. Both forms very often contain different colorations.

Acid dyestuffs: used on polyamide, elasthane and some specialised acrylics. These dyestuffs offer a wide variety of bright colours, but their fastnesses vary according to the different dyestuffs inside this same classification. According to the dimensions of the dyestuff’s molecule, there are three categories each of them needing a distinct pH value.

Cationic or basic dyestuffs: mainly used on acrylics. These dyestuffs produce bright colours with an excellent colour fastness. Disperse dyestuffs: used on polyester, polyamide, acetate and others. A fine colour variety is available with these dyestuffs but their colour fastness may vary considerably.

Pigments represent another category of applied dyestuffs. Whereas most dyestuffs are diluted in water, absorbed by fibres, and in most cases, chemically bonded with the fibre, pigments are deposited onto the surface. They cannot adhere to the fabric without adding a binding agent. This binding agent is usually mixed with the pigment and acts as an adhesive. Pigments are principally used for printing operations and for the coloration of melted polymers before extruding certain synthetic fibres.

3. Dyeing

Dyeing and printing are applied to colorise fabrics. The quality of the dyeing and printing is characterised by the fastness to light, water etc.

In the dyeing process, the textiles are dyed on their entire surface regardless of their presentation: fibres, slivers, hanks, fabrics or confectioned clothing.

In order to dye, one prepares a bath in which one dissolves the dyestuffs and chemicals that are necessary to the process.

By bringing the textile material into contact with the bath, the dyestuff is absorbed by the material where it remains more or less fixed.

The actual dyeing processes depend on the nature of the textile material and the type of dyestuff.

Dyeing or applying colour may be done during different steps in the production process. This is generally determined by the final use of the product and sometimes by fashion trends. The particular step where the product is dyed determines the coloration process to be used.

The five main dyeing procedures are :
· In-mass dyeing (during the extrusion of synthetic fibres)
· Fibre flock dyeing (the fibres are dyed before spinning)
· yarn-dyeing
· piece-dyeing (after weaving or knitting)
· garment-dyeing or product-dyeing

Rem. : There are special effects that can be obtained by dyeing blends, such as polyester/cotton. These are :
1. cross dyeing – produces multicolour effects in a yarn or fabric blend by selecting dyestuffs with different affinities to different fibres. When the blended fibres are dyed, each of them is dyed in a different colour.
2. Union dyeing – produces an even colour in the yarn or fabric blend. The dye bath contains different dyestuffs producing the same colour on each fibre of the blend.
3. Shade on shade dyeing is carried out when variants of the same fibre are used in the same yarn of fabric to produce different shades of the same colour in a single bath. This method is often used for carpets.

4. Printing

The objective of this technique is to print certain patterns on fabrics.

Prior to printing, one prepares a paste made of dyes, water, chemicals and a thickening agent preventing the paste to smear over the surface of the fabric.

The most widely spread printing systems use rotating machines consisting of perforated cyindres reproducing printing patterns .

The printing paste is introduced into the cylinders. By running through the cylinders’ perforations it is deposited onto the fabric.

Another and more modern printing method is called transfer printing. It consists of transferring at one the complete pattern onto the fabric on the basis of a special paper by applying heat or pressure. The printed patterns may be applied onto yarns, fabrics or confectioned garments.

Most commercial prints are made by one of the four following methods :
o Flat printing
o Roller printing
o Transfer printing
o Ink Jet printing

5. Dyestuff quality

The quality of dyestuffs and prints is determined by fastness.

In this way, a suspended curtain that looses its colour over time has a bad fastness to light and is therefore of a poor quality. A shirt loosing its colour by washing it has a bad fastness and is therefore of a poor quality.

Depending on the use to which a textile article is destined, the particular fastness characteristics are defined. For example: for a curtain a good fastness to light is required, for a shirt, a good fastness to transpiration and washing is demanded, and an upholstery fabric for a chair should possess a good resistance to friction and a good fastness to light .

6. (Chemical) finishing

(Chemical) finishing adds qualities to fabrics which they lack; it eliminates certain flaws or improves their touch and aspect.

First of all, one has to distinguish between functional and aesthetic finishing. Functional finishing improves the product’s performance under conditions of specific use whereas aesthetic treatments improve the appearance or touch (sensation) of the fabric.
Secondly, there is a distinction between chemical treatments (wet) and mechanical treatments (dry).

A third way to classify treatments is done by their degree of permanency. These classifications are :
o Temporary – the finish is removed by washing or dry-cleaning; e.g. calendaring (similar to pressing).
o Renewable – finishes that may be applied again. Examples of this type of treatment are starch and dirt repellent finishes.
o Durable – a treatment that will last the entire life of the product but with decreasing efficiency.
o Permanent – finish remaining entirely the same during the entire life of the product.

6.1 Chemical finishing

Chemical treatment to add particular qualities and characteristics to fabrics. The most commonly used treatments are :
- Crease-resistant treatment, allowing to avoid the tendency to crease of cotton fabrics.
- Shrink-resistant finish limits the tendency to shrink of cotton.
- By applying the water repellent and oil repellent finish, one avoids that fabrics absorb water and oil.
- Other finishes add specific properties to fabrics to starch and reinforce them.
- The softening finish improves the touch of the fabric.

6.2 Finishing

Mechanical or physical treatments to give particular qualities and characteristics to fabrics. The main finishing operation are :
Calendering – consists of submitting the fabric to a high pressure between two cylinders at high temperature, which will give a bright and ironed aspect. There is a variant to calendering called honeycomb by which embossed patterns are engraved on the surface of the fabric.
Raising and sueding consist of cutting certain fibres on the surface of the fabric to give them a soft and velvety aspect. Raising is obtained by grating the fabric with metallic points, and sueding by the friction of sandpaper.
Sanforising allows to prevent the cotton from shrinking when washed. It is carried out by compressing the cotton to reduce its shrinking capacity .

6.3 Coating

Application of a rubber, (polyvinyl chloride) or PU (Polyurethane) paste on one or both faces of a fabric. As soon as the coating is dry, it is firmly bonded to the fabric. As an example of coated fabrics, one can mention tarpaulin. Several coating processes (in solvant or aqueous medium) are possible.